A brief history of peony cultivation

The earliest philological record about peonies was found in 1972 at a tomb of the early Eastern Han Dynasty in an archaeological excavation at Cypress County, Wuwei, Gansu Province. The medical book, carved on bamboo pieces, prescribed peony as a remedy for blood stasis. Another medical book 'Shen Nong's Herbal Classic' in the Three Kingdoms (220-265AD) is a compilation of medical experience since the two Han Dynasties. These data show that peonies had come to play a part in human life approximately 2 000 years ago through medicine. Xie Lingyun in Song ( 420-479AD, one of the southern Dynasties) wrote, "The peony tends to grow in waters or bamboo clusters in Yongjia" (Collection of Xie Kangle's Essays). Xie's comments might imply that the wild peony flower had become an object of people's interest and appreciation. Liu Yuxi of Tang said, "Yang Zihua in: the Northern Qi Dynasty (550-577AD, one of the north Dynasties) definitely painted peonies" (Record of Interesting Words From Liu Binke by Wei Xuan of Tang Dynasty). They show that the peony had been gradually introduced to cultivation as an ornamental plant for about 1 500 years. However, in "Painting of Biographies of Outstanding Women" by Gu Hutou (about 344-405AD) from Yu Renzhong's edition in Song, Tree Shaoyao was drawn as a cultivated garden plant. Gu Hutou (or Gu Kaizhi) was a great painter in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420AD). Thus, pictorial evidence shows that peonies were cultivated at least 100 years earlier.

Mudan (tree peony) and Shaoyao (herbaceous peony) are placed in the same genus, Paeonia, in the family Paeoniaceae. The leaves and flowers are similar, but the former is an arboreal plant with a permanent woody branch structure, while the latter is a herbaceous plant with new growth each year from ground level. Before Qin, there was no clear distinction between mudan and shaoyao. "Based on Shaoyao, a tree peony was initially called tree shaoyao" ( Complete Annals by Zheng Qiao, the Song). According to the Summary of Complete Annals, the cultivation of Shaoyao can be traced to the periods of Xia, Shang and Zhou.

The earliest records of varieties of ornamental peonies are from the Sui Dynasty. When the Emperor Suiyang was on the throne (605-618 AD), he "cleared land about 100km in circumference, for the Garden Xiyuan. In his Imperial Edict, all kinds of animals and plants in the territory should be carried to the capital (present Luoyang). Twenty boxes of peonies were paid as tributes from Yizhou (present County Yi, Hebei). In Chang'an (present Xi'an) the capital of Tang, peonies were gradually planted. As precious plants, they could be cultivated only in imperial gardens. Shu Yuanyu of Tang in his Preface to Ode to Peonies states, "Empress Wu Zetian ordered peonies to be transplanted to the Shangyuan Garden of the Palaces. From then on, peonies flourished in the capital." The poet Li Bai composed three poems to the given tune of Qing Ping Yue, extolling the charming shapes and gorgeous colours of peonies. His poetry has won universal praise as a masterpiece for more than a thousand years. Since then, peonies have enjoyed a considerable reputation. Furthermore, in 825-827AD Li Zhengfeng wrote in an ode to peonies, "their national colours in the morning show the heart's content during carousal, while their heavenly fragrance at night dyes dresses." This is the origin of the well-known expression "National Beauty and Heavenly Fragrance". In the meantime, there was competition to plant peonies in temples and monasteries, such as Ci'en Temple and Xingtang Temple. The people in Chang'an had an ardent love of peonies. This passion was described in Liu Yuxi's poem: "Only the peony is a real national beauty. Its blossom creates a sensation throughout the capital." Also, in Addendum of National History, Li Zhao of the Tang says: "One was regarded as shameful if one did not visit the flowers." Since people treated peonies with such devotion, the price rose rapidly. "People grow them for profit. One could be sold at several ten thousand coins." (Addendum of National History in the Tang Dynasty).

Along with peony development in Chang'-an, the plants were gradually spread to other places. During the period from 724 - 749AD, they were introduced to Japan, while within China, the plants flourished in Luoyang. In the Tang (923-926AD) the Emperor Zhuangzong constructed Linfang Hall in Luoyang and "cultivated over a thousand peonies at the front" (Qingyi Records by Tao Gu of the Song Dynasty), on a similar scale to cultivation at the Tang Palace in Chang'an. Peonies were also introduced to the southern part of China. When Bai Juyi took the post of prefectural governor in Hangzhou (about 821-824AD), he once saw peonies being transplanted by monks from the capital to Kaiyuan Temple (Comments by Yunxi by Fan Shu, theTang).

In addition Mudan and Shaoyao, with other exotic plants, were planted in large numbers in the forbidden gardens of the Bohai State then established on the Peony Garden in the northeast. This state kept an intimate connection with the Tang Dynasty (Notes on Hearsay in Songmo Area), but peonies became extinct there when the state perished.

Multi-petalled forms had been bred with the development of peony cultivation in Tang. Miscellany in Duyang Area noted that "multi-petalled flowers were planted in front of the Palace of the Emperor Muzong" (821-824AD). Peony cultivation techniques were greatly developed in the Tang Dynasty. For the newly transplanted peony, "a cloth tent was spread out and a twig fence was woven to protect it. Because it was sprinkled with water and its root was covered with original soil before trans-planting, the colour of its flower remained as fresh as before" (Bai Juyi, Flower Purchase). As a result, "it bloomed one hundred percent after it had been transplanted to hundreds of places" (Bai Juyi, Transplanting Peonies). According to Liu Zongyuan's Records on the Dragon City, "The Luoyang resident Song Danfu was skilled in the art of cultivation. He was summoned by Emperor Xuanzong, Tang, to plant ten thousand peonies in Lishan. The colours and shapes were all different." It is presumed that such variation was the result of selection after sowing the seeds of natural hybridisation.

Peony flower arranging became a grand occasion in the royal palace of Tang. The activity was very refined and the requirements were carefully prescribed: decorating environment, cuttin instruments, containers, water quality and flower stands etc. While peony arranging was being enjoyed, people would also paint pictures, play music, drink wine and write poems (Luo Qiu, Tang, Hua Jiuxi).

In the North Song the centre of peony cultivation shifted to Luoyang, and as a result the Luoyang peony became foremost in the country. Planting peonies and appreciating the flowers became the prevailing fashion. When the peonies were in bloom in the Emperor's garden, "tents were arranged and shops were established. Musical pipes and strings could be heard inside. Town ladies stopped their cooking to visit the flowers" (Li Gefei, the Song Dynasty, Records on Luoyang Famous Gardens, hereafter Li's Records). Thus great flower fairs and gatherings were established. It became a custom for Luoyang women, no matter how rich or poor, to wear peonies in their hair (Ouyang Xiu, the Tang, Records of Luoyang Peony, hereafter Ouyang's Records).

Grafting was then introduced to propagate new varieties selected from the continued production of seedlings. Based on this, a succession of specialised books on peonies was published. In 1034AD Ouyang's Records was first printed, contributing greatly to China floriculture and to the study of flowers and cultivated varieties. Ten years later Pictures and Poetry of the Luoyang Peony, written by Ouyang Xiu, became another key book in peony literature. After that, Records of Luoyang Peony by Zhou Shihou, 1082AD, supplemented Ouyang's Records. It should be emphasised that two strains of crown form had evolved in 50 years into crown proliferate, the same time as single into crown. The evidence suggests that gradual development and favourable conditions are the dynamics to accelerate the natural evolution process.

Chenzhou (present Huaining of Henan Province) was another area where a great number of peonies were grown in the Northern Song Dynasty. The flowers were all introduced from Luoyang. "Farmers planted the flowers in vasts area counted by qing (1 qing = 6.667 hectares), on a similar scale to that of food crop planting" (Records on Chenzhou Peonies by Zhang Bangji of the Song Dynasty). But this delightful scene was short-lived. When the Nuzhen nationality army invaded, all the plants were completely destroyed. Peonies in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, began to thrive during the period between Tang and Song Dynasties. Xu Yanqiong, the maternal uncle of the descendant Emperor (on the throne 919-932AD) of the Earlier Shu State, brought a very old peony the 3000 li (1500 kilometres) from a Buddhist monastery in Qinzhou (present area around Tianshui, Gansu Province) to transplant it in his new residence in Chengdu. Afterwards Meng Chang, the descendant Emperor of the Later Shu State (on the thronef 934-965AD) introduced many more peonies and "widely planted them in Xuanhuayan Garden, which was named Peony Garden. But the flowers then spread out to local families when the Shu State perished, and farmers grew peonies for profit by cultivating the seeds and dividing the root systems" (Records on Peony, Hu Yuanzhi of the Song Dynasty).

Peonies in Tianpeng (present Pengzhou, Sichuan Province) enjoyed a high reputation in the Southern Song Dynasty. Tianpeng peonies came mainly from three sources: those that accumulated in Tianpeng after the plants came into the possession of ordinary people with the Later Shu's overthrow; new varieties which were steadily purchased from Luoyang by local people; and the original native plants, most of which had single flowers. Annals of County Peng written in the

Qing Dynasty indicated that Mount Danjing, 32 li north-west of the town, was named "red scenery" from the peonies abounding there. "Flowers were planted in plots on the mountain." It was also said that a peony planted there in the period of Earlier Shu was "as large as a full-grown tree".

Peonies in the regions south of the Yangtse River also developed in the Song Dynasty. Only the Preface of Description of Peony in Yue (Zhong Shu,986AD, Collection of Chinese Agriculture Works) has survived. This mentions that "In the region of Yue only peony was admired. There were 32 extremely beautiful strains" (Monk Zhong Shu of the Song Dynasty, Preface of Description of Peony in Yue). In Description of Flowers in Wu (Li Ying, 1045AD, Collection of Chinese Agriculture Works), 42 varieties different from those in Luoyang were noted. Peony cultivation declined in Luoyang after the Song imperial court moved to the south, but it was developed in Hangzhou, and some novel varieties were produced.

Peony production was at a low ebb during the Yuan Dynasty, leading Yao Sui to comment, in his Peony Criticism, "It is as hard to find a multi-petalled flower as to find a thousand heroes or ten thousand elites, only because the world cannot be kept persistently peaceful."

The peony cultivation 'centres moved to Bozhou (Anhui Province) and Heze (Shandong Province) in the Ming Dynasty, and to its capital Beijing, and the peony gradually began to thrive again. Also in the regions around Taihu Lake to the south of Yangtzi River, Lanzhou and Linxia in the north-west, peony planting techniques were developed and improved until the Qing Dynasty and even the Republic of China. Xue Fengxiang of the Ming Dynasty recorded in his book Peony History in Bozhou (1613-1617) that big families "searched everywhere in other regions for better varieties and transplanted them to Bozhou". They spared no expense for famous varieties and "frequently purchased a young seedling with one thousand coins and looked after it carefully." As a result the peony gradually prospered in Bozhou, reaching a peak of interest in the periods of Longqing and Wanii (1567-1620). The book notes 274 cultivars and describes about 200 of them in detail. Additionally, Niu Xiu noted 141 varieties in Statements on Bozhou Peony in 1684, the 22nd year of Kangxi, Qing Dynasty.

Caozhou was different from Bozhou in terms of new strains, and had a better reputation, so it became the peony cultivation centre in China during the Ming Dynasty. Varieties were exchanged between the two places. "Flowers in Caozhou were always transplanted from Bozhou" (Yu Pengnian of Qing Dynasty, Florilegium of Caozhou Peony). On the other hand, many famous strains in Caozhou were introduced to Bozhou. Jiang Tingxi of the Qing Dynasty commented in Hs Section of Prefecture of Yanzhou that peony cultivation had been investigated. "It initially flourished in Luoxia (Luoyang), and then in Bozhou, where plants are grown singly. Caozhou was the place for grand displays of peonies." Xie Zaihang, once the chief of Dongping Prefecture, recalled the sight of peonies when in Caozhou: "For 100 li as I went along the road in Puzhouand Caonan, my nose was filled with fragrance, because in each family's fields, peonies were planted as widely as vegetables were cropped" (Criticism in Five Groups). He then appreciated the peonies of a scholar's family: "Flowers completely filled a garden of about 50 mu. Even a tiny piece of land beyond a pavilion was full. The sight was similar to a huge sheet of brocade, dazzlingly colourful" (ibid). "Therefore in the beginning years of the Qing Dynasty, the peony in Caonan was eulogised and enjoyed the highest fame in China" (Yu Pengnian, Florilegium of Caozhou Peony). Peonies flourished in Caozhou for a considerably long period, lasting through the two dynasties of Ming and Qing. Zhao Shixue in his compilation New Additions to the Peony Florilegium (1911) recorded 240 strains of Caozhou peonies.

Peony cultivation prospered in Beijing from the time when the city became the capital of the Dynasties of Liao and Jin. A book from the Ming Dynasty, ,Study on Beijing indicated that an emperor of the Liao Dynasty went to Changchun Palace to enjoy the peonies. Beijing remained the capital in the Dynasties of Ming and Qing and there was a boom in peony cultivation in Ming. "Inside and' outside the Royal Golden Palace peonies were planted everywhere." There are still three great gardens completely given over to peonies in the suburbs of Beijing. It is said, in Huangdun Collection, an anthology, that in the first, Liangjiayuan Garden, the scene might be similar to that in ancient Luoyang. The second is Qinghuayuan Garden where in the Ming Dynasty an emperor's maternal relative's villa was situated. Records of Tourism in Capital Yan (ie Beijing) noted "There were many rare varieties in the garden, 'Lu Hu Die' being the superior one. At flowering time the garden deserved to be called a sea of flowers." The last garden, Zhangyuan, located in present area Huayancun, belonged to a nobleman. In Outline of Imperial Capital Scenery, Liu Tong and Yu Yizheng noted, "When the capital's peonies came into bloom everybody would go directly to Garden Zhangyuan." Yuan Hongdao, great writer of the Ming Dynasty, once went to appreciate the flowers. In his description " approxi-mately 5 000

peonies were blooming. One particular cultivar was superior: it was as white as snow in the early morning; between 9 and 11 o'clock, tender yellow; while at noon it blushed like rosy cheeks. So it was really unique among flowers" (Yuan Hongdao of Ming Dynasty, Records of Peonies Enjoyed in ZhangYuan Garden). Annals of Shuntian Prefecture and Outline of Imperial Capital Scenery further noted that in 18 villages in the areas of Fengtai and Caoqiao, peony cultivation was the main employment. "Caoqiao beyond You'anmen had spring water readily available to the north. The residents there, flower planters by profession, warmed their peonies with mild fire, so that in the middle of October flowers could be sent into imperial palaces." In the Ming Dynasty peonies were also luxuriantly planted in Jile Temple. In the beginning of the Period of Tianqi (1621-1627), "outside the gate there were old willows and in front of the temple ancient pines. On the left of it was situated the hall of National Flower Peony." This shows that the peony was honoured as the national flower early in the Ming Dynasty.

In the Qing Dynasty fresh flowers were provided to the Imperial Palace in all four seasons. Peonies became available for winter decoration when the technique of forcing was developed. By the end of the dynasty peonies had been widely planted in the Imperial Palace Garden, the National Flower Terrace of the Summer Palace and Chongxiao Temple of Baizhifang. The National Flower Terrace, also named Peony Terrace, was initially built in 1903 to the east of the Cloud Dispelling Palace. Cixi, the mother of the emperor, issued an imperial edict declaring the peony as the national flower and ordered a stone carved with the words National Flower Terrace. Other peony growers usually purchased peonies from Caozhou, and planted some of their plants in pots, using the technique of forcing to produce flowers for the Spring Festival. The rest were grown in nursery beds to produce seedlings for sale.

Jiangyin described the thriving peonies south of the Yangtse River in the Ming Dynasty. "In the present period peonies are particularly famous in Bozhou in the north and in Jiyang in the south" (Jiao Hong of the Ming Dynasty, Preface to Peony History). In addition, a great number of peonies were planted in Hangzhou and Suzhou. Ji Nan in his Peony Florilegium (1809) summarised the experience of peony cultivation and breeding in these areas. He collected 103 varieties, 24 of which came from Bozhou, 19 from Caozhou and the rest from the area ofTaihu Lake. Since grafting with shaoyao as rootstock began, peonies there "became better."

Peonies in Shanghai also once enjoyed quite a reputation. After five harbour cities were built up in the Qing Dynasty, the cultivation of peonies in Shanghai prospered. 'The best ones were produced at Fahua Temple" (Annals of Count Shanghai written in the Qing Dynasty). This reputation however was taken over by Huangyuan Garden, where Japanese and French varieties were also introduced. All the famous traditional varieties of ancient China recorded in Mirror of Flowers could be found in the garden before it was unfortunately destroyed in the time of the war with Japan.

Ning'guo peony and Tongling peony were in the group of peonies south of the Yangtse River. As to the peonies grown in TongLing, the Annals of County TongLing stated, "the -variety known as Fairy Peony grows in the mountains in rock crevices. A white-flowered peony plant, over one chi high with two or three matchlessly pure and pretty flowers, is said to have been grown by Ge Hong." If it is true, the plant must be 1600 years old.

In the dynasties of Ming and Qing, peonies in Gansu Province quietly prospered as well. Peonies were planted in most parts of the province. It was said that the peonies in the Taoist Temple Jintain remained from the Tang Dynasty. Tan Sitong reported: "though peonies are produced all over Gansu, those in the governmental garden were superb: all the several hundreds of plants in the garden grow to over roof height and the flowers borne on each plant are numbered in hundreds." In Annals of Hezhou compiled in the Ming Dynasty (1563) peony cultivation was already recorded. Wuzhen (1721-1797), a poet in Gansu in the Qing Dynasty, wrote in his poem "Peonies can be seen in every place, those in Hezhou are most praised." Another Annals of Hezhou finished before 1949 noted, "There were scores of varieties of peonies in the past. Because of efficient cultivation techniques, the plants in the province at the present time are superior."

Wanhua Hill in Yan'an, facing Huayuantou Village, was luxuriantly planted with peonies. In Annals of Yan 'an Prefecture written in the period of Jiajing of the Ming Dynasty (1522-1567), peonies were recorded to be "greatly planted in Huayuantou and woodmen cut them as firewood." For a thousand years, the local people nearby have kept the tradition of strolling around the fairground in Huayuantou on April 8th of the Lunar, Calendar to appreciate the flowers. In 1939 and 1940, the leaders of the Communist Party of China Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, Dong Biwu, Lin Boqu and Ren Bishi twice went to enjoy the peonies.

Peonies were produced in Guanyang of Guangxi as well. In Complete Annals of Guangxi written in the Ming Dynasty, it was claimed that "Peonies came from the Guangxi Counties of Lingchuan and Guanyang. Peonies in the latter place grew as high as one zhang, so that county was called little Luoyang."

The following conclusions can be drawn after a panoramic view of Chinese peony cultivation is taken:

First, whether peony cultivation prospers or declines is decided by the rise or fall of the country's fortunes. Of course, one could take the view that the vicissitudes of a nation are a reflection of the wax and wane of peony planting. In Li's Records it says, "The ups and downs of Luoyang can be read from the state of the peony gardens." The changes in gardens and flower cultivation can be regarded as a barometer of the politics and' economy of a nation.

Secondly, the pattern of Chinese peony cultivation that emerges through its long history is that the main centres are along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, while other areas become influential secondary cultivation centres. As dynasties change, so do the peony cultivation centres. In outline, the formation and development of Chinese peony varieties have closely followed this geographical pattern. The centres are summarised in Table 1.

Thirdly, 1 650 years have passed since Chinese peonies were introduced from the wild state into ornamental cultivation. The cultivated varieties gradually evolved from simple flowers through more complex multi-petalled forms, culminating with the crown proliferate varieties. The techniques of grafting have enabled the cultivation in great numbers of new cultivars with good properties.

Finally, frequent upsurges in the popularity of the peony reflect the esteem in which it has been held nationwide in each dynasty. It has long had national flower status. Although since Tang there have been many changes of dynasty, the celestial beauty and fragrance of the peony have sustained its exalted position. The tree peony has enjoy-ed the highest status, fame and reverence of all of China's many lovely flowers.

Table 1 Chinese Peony Cultivation Centres Through the Ages